Chapter 4

THE CAMERA

Camera Body: light tight enclosure protecting the film from unwanted exposure to light. Opens to allow loading of film.

Lens: forms and image of the subject matter on the film.

Focusing Device: moves the lens in and out to select the subject distance that will be in focus.

Viewfinder: shows the approximate view of the part of the subject that will be in the image on the film and may include a method for checking the focus of the image.

Aperture: an opening adjusting by means of a dial, lever or ring with marked f-stop numbers. Controls the amount of exposure on the film.

Shutter: shields the film from the image until the shutter release is pressed, when it opens for a measured amount of time. Controlled by a knob, lever or ring. Controls the exposure on the film.

Film Advance: a lever or knob that moves the film forward for the next photograph.

FORMAT SIZE

• an important influence on the technical quality of the image
• the rendition of detail and fineness of grain generally increase with increasing format size

Miniature Format: usually use disc film or 110 film. Is used when extreme enlargement isn't necessary.

Small Format: normally use 35mm and produce a 24x36mm image.

Medium Format: use 120 or 220 film and produce several different sizes of image depending on model of camera. 6x4.5cm, 6x6cm, 6x7cm, 6x8cm, and 6x9cm. Is useful when larger image size is desired.

Large Format: produce 4x5in, 5x7in, and 8x10in.

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Viewfinder/Rangefinder Cameras

• viewing is done through and eyepiece with its own simple lens
• advantages: lighter in weight, quieter operation, less vibration, brighter view
• since the viewfinder is not in the same position as the lens, it shows a slightly different view of the object, called paralax error

Single Lens Reflex Camera

• in an SLR the image is deflected to a ground glass by a mirror, which swings out of the way when the shutter release is pressed
• the image on the ground glass is reversed right to left, since it is a mirror image
• many SLRs use a pentaprism, located above the ground glass and show a correctly oriented image through an eyepiece
• advantage: view of actual image that will fall on the film
• focus can be seen in the eyepiece
• interchangeable lenses are possible
• generally available in 35mm and medium format

Twin Lens Reflex Camera

• two identical lenses are mounted on the camera
• one forms the image on the film (bottom lens) and the other is deflected by a mirror (top lens) to a ground glass for viewing and is reversed left to right
• because of the small distance between the lenses TLRs are subject to paralax error

View Camera

• a direct viewing system
• ground glass is placed in the exact position that the film will occupy
• the film, enclosed in a special holder is placed into the back of the camera when taking a picture
• the image seen on the back of the camera is upside-down just as the image on the film will be
• the lens and the back of the camera can be tilted and swing to alter the plane of focus or shape of the subject
• focus is checked by placing a magnifying glass on the ground glass

Lens Conversion for Medium Format

• 80mm on medium format camera is similar to 50mm on a 35mm camera
• 50mm on medium format camera is similar to 28-30mm on a 35mm camera
• 150mm on medium format camera is similar to 90mm on a 35mm camera

Toning

Toning

• image color is a property of the emulsion and paper base
• image color can be modified with toning
• toning changes the overall color
• for creative/artistic effect
• some toners make prints more archival
• a variety of toners
• some toners dye the emulsion gel
• some reduce/increase contrast and density
• adjust the print for what we know about a toner
• some decrease archival permanence
• some examples of archival toners: gold, sepia (least expensive) and selenium

Sepia Toner

• produces a definite color change to brown
• yellow-brown to a red-brown
• toner color depends on how long we bleach and apply toner
• archival process, more stable
• sulfur makes silver more stable
• results in a silver sulfur print
• less likely to break down
• if toned and washed correctly can last hundreds of years

Application

• used more for aesthetics rather than archival
• make something look older
• using kodak toner, 2 bath process

1. Print the image a bit darker than usual (increase the density by 20-30%).
2. Bleach, print with ferricyanide. Turns the silver a soluble form.
3. Wash off the bleach in water.
4. Place the print in the toner. This process allows the sulfur to bond to the soluble silver.
5. Wash the print for 5 minutes or more (continuous).
6. A final print will appear brown and the white, and will be lighter than the black and white version/print.

Blue Toner

• is a one step process
• NOT archival
• result in a print with more contrast and darker print
• compensate in printing by lowering contrast and density (print 10-15% lighter)
• control color, the strength of the toner lowers as more prints pass through
• add hot water before toning to make the color more intense
• if put in developer, turns back to black and white
• yellow in highlights, wash a littler longer in warm water

Flashing and Split Filtration Printing

FLASHING

Why - for subjects that have slight substance in their high values, that is, various close tonalities that are difficult to hold in the print. EX. Clouds, white water.

Definition - a threshold exposure added to an overall print to reduce contrast extremes.

How

Method 1

1. Place a piece of diffusion material (soft focus material) under the lens.
2. Place the lowest contrast filter (highest number yellow).
3. With the negative removed, stop the lens down to f/16.
4. Make a test strip at 1 second intervals with a minimum of 10 stops.
5. Find the strip with the first discernible hint of grey. The flash exposure is one less than this.
6. Using the exposure determined, flash the sheet of paper with the low contrast filter and diffusion material in place.
7. Remove diffusion material, replace the negative, compose and focus image.
8. Make actual exposure including burning and dodging, etc.
9. Develop.

Method 2

1. With the negative in place use a diffusion sheet under the lens with the lowest contrast filter.
2. Open the lens all the way (f/2.8) and prefalsh for 1 or 2 seconds.
3. Remove diffusion sheet and yellow filtration.
4. Replace appropriate filtration and make final print.

SPLIT FILTRATION PRINTING

Definition - the use of different grades of contrast filtration on the same print

Application

• in high contrast negatives (negatives with extreme dense areas and extreme thin areas)
• in this approach we generally use one setting that adds a lot of contrast (5 or 140 magenta) and one setting that reduces contrast (0 or 50 yellow)
• yellow filtration is used to control detail in the highlights
• magenta is used to obtain strong rich detailed blacks

Method

1. Choose a high contrast negative.
2. Dial in 140 magenta (this is your shadow printer). Make a test strip in the shadow areas.
3. Develop strip and determine the minimum exposure in which the deep shadow areas print black and there is still visible detail (note this time).
4. Dial in 50 yellow (this is your highlight printer). Make a test strip in the highlight areas.
5. Develop strip and determine the time you have just begun to achieve detail in your highlights (note the time).
6. Dial in 140 magenta and expose paper for determined time.
7. Without moving the paper, dial out magenta and dial in yellow and expose for determined time.

Soft Focus Filters in the Darkroom

What is a soft focus filter?

• a piece of material, usually glass or plastic that has an uneven or dimpled surface
• filter is placed on the front of the lens to "soften" the image by slightly blurring it
• you can use nylons or vaseline

Movement for Effect

• use a long exposure (so close down aperture) in order to really control the amount of movement

Spotting

Definition: The use of dyes or pigments to correct white specs and lines produced in the print by opaque defects or dust in the negative

• usually done using dyes such as spot tone or marshalls
• this will darken the area without affecting the surface reflectance of the paper
• dyes are available in different colors and tones
• sometimes when spotting colored negs we mix different pigments to match the tone of the print
• for B+W paper, we also must be sensitive to the tone of the the black ink as some papers are cool and others are warm

METHOD

1. Print should be place under strong illumination and should be carefully wiped of any dust.
2. Protect the surface of the print (especially where you lay your hand) with the paper.
3. To achieve the proper tone for the print, wet brush and wipe in the toner. Remove any excess water on the brush by lightly laying the brush on the sponge. Test the tone on a piece of photo paper of the same surface as your print. Try to achieve a tone slightly lighter than the area you would like to spot.
4. To spot fine specs, a pencil can be used, rubbing the print lightly after applied.
5. To spot larger areas it is usually better to stipple the area to equalize values and approximate the look of grain.

Shadows/Highlights Review

• if the subject is in the shadows we will meter for the shadows (most of the time)
• if most of the scene other than the subject is highlights we will split the difference between highlight and shadow meter readings
• if the subject is in the highlights and most of the scene consists of highlights, meter for the highlights
• if half of the scene is shadow and half is highlights, shoot at the calculated middle meter reading

Printing Challenge

Normal

Underexposed Negative

• thin
• not enough exposure
• EX. f8 @ 1/60 --> f8 @ 1/125

For Printing

• increase contrast (magenta filter)
• less time (exposure for print)

Overexposed Negative

• thick; too much exposure
• generally have to decrease contrast to print as normal
• increase printing time
• EX. f8 @ 1/60 --> f8 @ 1/30

SABATTIER EFFECT

Discovery: Over a century ago, a French doctor and scientist, Armand Sabattier, discovered what he called a psuedo solarization reversal effect.

• today it is often erroneously referred to as solarization, but there is a distinct difference between solarization and Sabattier
• technically solarization is the reversal of an image on film by extremem over exposure
• the Sabattier effect is the partial reversal of an image on neg or print that occurs when the film or print is re-exposed to light in the developer.

Chemical Process

• to create a print for Sabattier, first find proper contrast and density for the particular image
• now boost the contrast to around 140 magenta and print the image lighter than normal
• place print in developer for about 10-15 seconds, stop developer and and re-expose the print for about 3-4 seconds
• continue developement (this time really varies)
• stop and fix as usual
• Mackie lines

Filters for Black and White Shooting

Filter - a photographic filter is made up of transparent material - glass, plastic or gelatin - with dyes incorporated so that it selectively removes specific colors or wave lengths of light that pass through it.

Additive Primaries

Red, Blue Green
Red + Blue = Magenta
Blue + Green = Cyan
Red + Green = Yellow

EX. A red filter is ideal o expose for sky. It blocks or darkens green and blue (cyan).

• a red filter appears red because it allows red light to pass, absorbing other colors of light (blue and green)
• red filter, filters our cyan, blue and green light
• in general, in the print a filter darkens most strongly its complimentary color

Full Frame

How

• using an 8x10 easel
• size down image area to fit inside the frame
• for clean boarders use one of the four bladed 11x14 easels
• size image as desired on 8x10 paper and but in the edges of easel to block the rough edges of neg carrier

Black Borders

1. File down edges of neg carrier to include rebate of neg in print

• you can also make your own neg carrier out of foamcore

2.

a)Frame full frame of image on 8x10 paper
b) Determine density and contrast, burning and dodging, feather edges, etc.
c) Make exposure, cut out a piece of opaque cardboard that is slightly smaller than the size of your image on the print.
d) Place the cardboard down over the area.
3) Expose print a second time (with or without neg) for as long as you need to make black border.

Multiple Printing: printing multiple negatives as one image

1. Expose one image over another in camera - underexpose both images to make one properly exposed negative
2. Combine two negs in the neg carrier and print through both - best to use underexposed negs

Enlarger Blending

1. Select two or more negatives.
2. Decide where you want them to blend.

Burning and Dodging

PHOTO [light] GRAPHY [to write]

Burn

• increase the exposure in a particular area of the print by blocking everything else in the print from image light and giving additional printing time to that area. Burning will darken the area when printing from a negative. Also called burn in or print in.

Dodge

• to reduce exposure in a particular area of a print by blocking image light from that area during part of the exposure. When printing from a negative, dodging will lighten the area. It is also called hold back.

Why Burn and Dodge?

1. Range - often one overall exposure cannot reconcile in both shadow and highlight areas. Burning and dodging are employed to create a larger ranger of tones in the print.
2. Mood - use to create drama
3. Balance

Vignetting

• making more exposure on the edges of a print to make the edges darker and to make focus of the image inwards

TIPS

1. To avoid obvious wire marks leading up to the precisely dodges areas, bend wire away from the paper.
2. To make a softer edged or sharped hand held mask, raise the image with books.
3. Print with conviction.